Notes

1. Source of image: Centre International de Documentation et d’Information Haitienne, Caribéenne et Afro-canadienne (CIDIHCA), « Portraits de notables haïtiens 1790-1915 », https://www.cidihcafrance.com/portraits-de-notables-haitiens-1790-1915/. The image corresponds to the one found in Jean Price-Mars, Jean-Pierre Boyer Bazelais et le drame de Miragoâne (Imprimerie de l’État, 1948), 25, which is dated 1879.

2. Historian Louis E. Elie, who was not sympathetic to Paul, describes him as « assurément le plus grand sculpteur de lois de l’époque libérale ». Louis E. Elie, « Auguste Magloire: ses idées et ses opinions », Le Temps, 6 décembre 1939, 2-5.

3. Historian David Placide says that Paul’s peers in parliament respected him because he was honest and focused on objective arguments. David Placide, « Edmond Paul (1837-1893) », Le Temps, 19 Juin 1935, 1-2. See also, for example, the Haitian jurist Emmanuel Edouard, who described Edmond Paul as « un de nos rares hommes politiques militants qui sachent de quoi ils parlent, un de ceux qui disposent de la tranquillité intérieure, doivent être retenues et méditées ». Emmanuel Édouard, Éssai sur la politique intérieure d’Haïti (Augustin Challamel, 1890), 81.

4. Firmin’s deep admiration for Paul is widely reported; see, for example, Yves Dorestal, Anténor Firmin (C3 Éditions, 2023), 69 and Seymour Pradel, « Anténor Firmin (Souvenirs) », in Anténor Firmin. Vu par Démétrius André, Seymour Pradel, Pauléus Sannon, Georges Benjamin (C3 Éditions, 2020), 111. Charlier adds that Firmin fully endorsed Paul’s economic ideas. Etienne D. Charlier, « Haití », in El pensamiento económico latinoamericano, ed. I.F. Normano (Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1945), 235.

5. Marcelin describes Paul as an “oasis” in a political desert, who put the country before himself. Frédéric Marcelin, Choses Haïtiennes (Kugelmann, 1896), 9-16.

6. See Paul Boiteau’s positive review in the Parisian Revue des économistes. Paul Boiteau, « L’éducation professionelle du peuple ou La protection du aux industries naissantes, (Lettre à Montfleury), par M. Edmond Paul, In-8, 1862, Paris », Revue des économistes 37, no. 35 (1863) : 359.

7. “Death of a Haitian Statesman”, The New York Times, 28 June 1893. Also at the time of his death, one of his books, Les causes de nos malheures, was on exhibit at the Chicago World Fair as part of the Haitian delegation’s library. See Robert Gentil et Henri Chauvet, Haïti à l’exposition Colombienne de Chicago (Imprimerie Vve J. Chenet, 1893), 112.

8. See, for example, Justin Chrysostome Dorsainvil, Manuel d’histoire d’Haïti (Procure des Frères de l’Instruction Chrétienne, 1934), 301; Placide,  « Edmond Paul (1837-1893) »; David Placide, « Edmond Paul », Cahiers d’Haïti 2, n. 8 (mars 1945): 32-33; Dantès Bellegarde, La nation haïtienne (J. de Gigord, 1938); Charlier, « Haití »; Hénock Trouillot, « La pensée d’Edmond Paul », Le Nouvelliste, 8 mars 1967: 1-3, 9 mars 1967: 1-3, 10 mars 1967: 1-2; David Nicholls, From Dessalines to Duvalier, 3rd edition (Rutgers UP, 1996 [1979]); Matthew J. Smith, « Exile in 19th-Century Haiti », in Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Latin American History (Oxford University Press, 2016); and Anne Eller, “‘A Fossilized Utopia’? Debates over Foreign Landownership and Development in Haiti, 1830s–1870s”, Journal of Haitian Studies 28, n. 1 (2022): 4-38.

9. See, for example, the economists Joachim, Caprio, Pierre-Charles, Cadet, and Chéry, the sociologists Dupuy and Dorvilier, the agronomist Burns, and the poet Depestre. Benoît Joachim, Les racines du sous-développement en Haïti (H. Deschamps, 1982 [1979]); Giovanni Caprio « Introduction à l’histoire économique d’Haïti », in Haïti et l’après- Duvalier: continuités et ruptures, tome 1, ed. Cary Hector et Hérard Jadotte (CIDIHCA, 1991); Gérard Pierre-Charles, L’économie haïtienne et sa voie de développement (H. Deschamps, 1993); Charles L. Cadet, « La pensée du développement en Haïti au XIXème siècle », Rencontre n. 31 (2014): 63-66; Frédéric G. Chéry, « Introduction à l’impôt sur les cafés », dans De l’impôt sur les cafés et des lois du commerce intérieur par Edmond Paul (C3 Éditions, 2023); Alex Dupuy « Class formation and underdevelopment in nineteenth-century Haiti », Race & Class 24, n. 1 (1982): 17–31; Fritz Dorvilier, La crise haïtienne du développement (Éditions de l’Universite d’Etat d’Haïti, 2012); Vinton Burns « La faillite de la SHADA », Optique n. 7 (1954): 28-33; René Depestre, « Buenos días y adiós a la negritud », en Antología del pensamiento crítico haitiano contemporáneo, coord. Camila Valdés León y Frantz Voltaire (CLACSO, 2018 [1985]).

10. Edmond Paul, « Notre problème. Pages retrouvées », Le Temps, 2 décembre 1932 ; Edmond Paul, « Discours du 14 aout 1876 », Le Temps, 19 juin 1935 ; Placide, « Edmond Paul (1837-1893) » ; H. Trouillot, « La pensée d’Edmond Paul »; Rency Inson Michel, « Éléments descriptifs d’un aperçu d’un Plan de gouvernement : Rencontre avec Edmond Paul », Le National, 17 mars 2022. See also the anecdote in « Quelques propos très simples », Le Matin, 8 août 1923, 1.

11. “Edmond Paul”, Le Temps, 1936; “Le centenaire d’Edmond Paul”, Psyche, 15 octobre 1937, p. 4; « Ephémérides Haïtiennes », Le Nouvelliste, 10 octobre 1970, p. 1.

12. Administration Locale de Port-au-Prince, « Arrêté », Le Moniteur, 6 octobre 1947, p 4 [786]. The street named for Edmond Paul in the Bas Peu de Chose neighborhood was apparently already known by his name for many years before the official designation (see P. Delille, « Mémoire », Le Moniteur, 9 novembre 1933, p 5 [723]). As a hypothesis for future research, this may indicate a local tradition associating him with that place.

13. Éditions Fardin published a new edition of Œuvres posthumes in 2014 and of Les causes de nos malheures in 2015. C3 Éditions published a new edition of De l’Impôt sur les Cafés et des Lois du Commerce Intérieur in 2023.

14. For example, in 2019, Rency Inson Michel made Les causes de nos malheurs available on the Université du Québec à Montréal’s website, Les classiques des sciences sociales, and in 2020 he published a video introduction to Edmond Paul’s thought (« Introduction à la pensée d’Edmond Paul (1837-1893). Etudes haïtiennes #4 », YouTube, 29 octobre 2020, https://youtu.be/4z1jHCwRsio?feature=shared). The following year, Behique Dunama reviewed and expanded upon Michel’s video in the Dream Variants blog (“An introduction to the thought of Edmond Paul”, Dream Variants, 21 March 2021, https://thedreamvariation.blogspot.com/2021/03/an-introduction-to-thought-of-edmond.html).

15. Image courtesy of the Bibliothèque Haïtienne des Frères de l’Instruction Chrétienne.

16. Charlier (« Haití », 228) explains that he did not have access to Paul’s De l’industrie dans les villes (1862), even as he affirms the importance of this text. Pierre-Charles (L’économie haïtienne, 17) says that in the 1960s, Paul’s writings were “introuvables” in Haiti.

17. Charlier, « Haití », 233.

18. Chéry (« Introduction », 22-25).

19. For the most recent updates, see Emilio Travieso, « Edmond Paul », Yon lòt ekonomi pou yon lòt Ayiti: https://yonlotekonomi.wordpress.com/2020/12/14/edmond-paul/

20. See Chéry (« Introduction », 23-26). Regarding the enduring relevance of the wider tradition of thought he represented, see also Erik Reinert, How Rich Countries Got Rich and Why Poor Countries Stay Poor (Constable, 2007) and Erik Reinert, The Other Canon: Essays in the Theory and History of Uneven Economic Development (Anthem, 2024).

21. See “Extrait des registres du Greffe du Tribunal civil de l’Anse-à-Veau”, Le Moniteur, 4 janvier 1879, p. 4 ; Le Moniteur, 12 juillet 1893, p. 2.

22. Rulx Léon, Propos d’histoire d’Haïti, tome II (Imp. La Phalange, 1974), 11.

23. See Léon’s biography of Jean Paul for more details on his career (Léon, Propos).

24. See Léon, Propos, 225-236.

25. Léon, Propos, 19, 237.

26. He knew only his older brother, Joseph François Paul, and younger sister, Herminie Paul, since his older sister had died at birth (Léon, Propos, 30).

27. Léon, Propos, 30.

28. Source of image: CIDIHCA, « Portraits de notables haïtiens 1790-1915 ».

29. The New York Times (“Death”) reports his height as 6 ft 9 in (or approximately 206 cm). See also Marcelin (Choses, 12).

30. H. Trouillot (« La pensée », 8 mars 1967, 1) very reasonably infers this based on Paul’s family background. Further, Paul explicitly says, in a Parliamentary session, that he did not need a salary as a legislator, but accepted it because he knew his peers might need theirs (at the time of this writing, I have lost the reference to that quote).

31. Placide, « Edmond Paul (1837-1893) », 1.

32. Placide, « Edmond Paul (1837-1893) », 1.

33. Placide, « Edmond Paul (1837-1893) », 1. While Paul’s studies were surely interdisciplinary, H. Trouillot (« La pensée », 8 mars 1967, 1) seems to be mistaken in saying that Edmond Paul studied law, since Paul himself declared: « Dans les questions de droit, il me serait difficile de lutter contre le collègue Nau qui est avocat » (“Séance publique du 14 Juin 1871”, Le Moniteur, 19 aout 1871, p. 4).

34. Placide, « Edmond Paul (1837-1893) », 1. According to Daniel Supplice (Dictionnaire bibliographique des personnalités politiques de la République d’Haïti, 1804–2014, C3 Éditions, 2014, 570), Paul started his career as a third-class employee of the state in the administration of finances, presumably around this time.

35. He later affirms that the version that appeared in Le Moniteur was abridged. Edmond Paul, De l’Industrie dans les villes. Lettre à M. Monfleury (Imprimerie Nationale, 1862), 1.

36. Etienne Charlier (« Haití », 226) adds that we only have news of the precursors because Paul himself cites them in his text.

37. As already noted by Nicholls (Dessalines to Duvalier, 102).

38. Supplice (Dictionnaire, 570); Jean-Jacques Cadet, « L’aventure de la pensée socialiste en haiti. Une analyse des oeuvres d’Antenor Firmin, Démesvar Delorme et Louis-Joseph Janvier », Le Grand Soir, 8 août 2016, https://www.legrandsoir.info/l-aventure-de-la-pensee-socialiste-en-haiti-une-analyse-des-oeuvres-d-antenor-firmin-demesvar-delorme-et-louis-joseph-janvier.html. For more on the significance of producing soap in Haiti at the time, see Eller (« Utopia », 29 fn 80).

39. J.C. Dorsainvil (Manuel, 301-302) gives an account of the process. Placide (« Edmond Paul (1837-1893) », « Edmond Paul »), echoed by Bellegarde (Histoire du peuple haïtien (1492-1952), 2nd ed., Fardin, 2004 [1953], 230), reports that the exchange rate was 3,000 HTG for 1USD around the time that Edmond Paul came into office. Victor Bulmer-Thomas (The Economic History of the Caribbean Since the Napoleonic Wars, Cambridge UP, 2012, 180) reports that it was 4,000 HTG to 1 USD. Edmond Paul reports that it was between 4,000-5,000 HTG to 1 USD (Edmond Paul, « Étude politique. Haïti et l’intérêt français. Réponse à M. de Molinari », dans Œuvres posthumes, Vve. Ch. Dunod et P. Vicq, 1896, 145-146). In any case, it was clear that the gourde had lost its original value, which was theoretically on par with the US dollar and other foreign currencies, which at the time were coins made of precious metals (albeit with varying degrees of purity, in practice). These other currencies were already circulating at the time (see Bulmer-Thomas, Economic History, 179), and largely replaced the paper gourde when it was eliminated (along with Haitian copper coins, see J.C. Dorsainvil, Manuel, 302), until the new gourde was introduced in 1880 (see Bulmer-Thomas, Economic History, 180).

40. For a sample of their zeal, see the various inquiries and proposals discussed in the 30 juin 1870 issue of Le Civilisateur.

41. Placide, « Edmond Paul (1837-1893) »,  1.

42. Jean Paul had been the Grand Master in Haiti for many years (see Léon, Propos, 245).

43. During the period 1872-1873 (at least), Edmond Paul was a member of the lodge, L’Étoile d’Haïti # 5. Lewis Ampidu Clorméus, « Quelques aspects des rapports entre la franc-maçonnerie et la sphère politique en Haïti au XIXe siècle », Outre-Mers 102, no. 386-387 (2015), 193n37.

44. “Sapeurs-pompiers”, Le Civilisateur, 9 february 1871, p. 3.

45. He was often refered to as a “publiciste” in this sense. For more details on the newspaper, see Ulrick Duvivier, Bibliographie Générale et Méthodique d’Haïti, tome II (Imprimerie de l’État, 1941), 333.

46. Duvivier, Bibliographie, 403.

47. For relevant context, see H. Trouillot, « La pensée », 9 mars 1967, 1.

48. For more on Thoby, see Dantès Bellegarde, Écrivains haïtiens (H. Deschamps, 1950), 112-120; the same book introduces many of the authors mentioned here.

49. The debate seems to have started with a piece by Paul in Le Civilisateur, no. 14 (see Edmond Paul, « Agiotage. Lettre à Thoby III », Le Civilisateur no. 29, 22 septembre 1870, p. 2). It is not available in the consulted archives (the first available issue on dLOC seems to be no. 15). The debate continued in (at least) the following publications: Armand Thoby, “A son très estimable ami, Edmond Paul”, Le Civilisateur, no. 16, 23 juin 1870, p. 1-2; Edmond Paul, “Agiotage – Mr. E. Paul à son ami A. Thoby. Une définition”, Le Civilisateur, no. 18,  7 juillet 1870, p.2; Edmond Paul, “Agiotage. Lettre à Thoby II”, Le Civilisateur, no. 23, 11 août 1870, p. 1; Armand Thoby, « Lettre à E. Paul sur l’agiotage » Le Civilisateur, no. 28, 15 septembre 1870, p. 2-3; Edmond Paul, « Agiotage. Lettre à Thoby III ».

50. Placide, « Edmond Paul (1837-1893) », 2.

51. « Décret », Le Moniteur, 8 May 1875, p.1.

52. Antoine Michel, Salomon Jeune et l’affaire Louis Tanis (Imprimerie Saint-Jacques, 1913), 2; Placide, « Edmond Paul (1837-1893) », 2.

53. Placide, « Edmond Paul (1837-1893) », 2. For more on the inner politics of the Liberal party, see Edmond Paul, Les causes de nos malheurs : appel au peuple (Geo. Henderson & Co., 1882) and A. Michel, Salomon.

54. Jean Archin, “Le résultat des élections”, Le Moniteur, 27 May 1876, p. 3 ; “Liste des Représentants élus, d’après les procès-verbaux reçus a la Secrétairerie d’État de l’lntérieur,” Le Moniteur, 3 June 1876, p. 1.

55. See Le Moniteur, 22 juillet 1876, p. 3 ; see also A. Michel, Salomon.

56. See Enquête parlementaire sur les emprunts du gouvernement Domingue à l’étranger. Quatrième division, annexe des Procès-verbaux (Sears et Cole, 1877). See also, for example, « Assamblée Nationale. Séance du vendredi 22 juin 1877 », Le Moniteur, 14 juillet 1877, p. 1.

57. Placide, « Edmond Paul (1837-1893) », 2.

58. See « Chambre des Représentants. Séance publique du 23 mai 1877 », Le Moniteur, 14 juin 1877, p. 3-4.

59. It came together with a report by a bicameral committee of which he was the rapporteur, presented as a response to a group of Port-au-Prince tradesmen who had requested protection from foreign competition; both the report and the bill echoed Paul’s earlier writings. See « Rapport et différentes pièces sur la pétition des ouvriers de la Capitale »,  Le Moniteur, 30 août 1877, p. 3-4 (both the report and the bill are republished in Œuvres posthumes, 293-319).

60. The proposal came up for debate in the House on August 27; after Paul clarified some points, it was approved with minor changes, and published on August 30 (« Projet de loi prescrivant des mesures pour la création de diverses industries », Le Moniteur, 30 août 1877, p. 4); the full debate was published a few months later (« Chambre des Représentants. Séance publique du 27 août 1877 », Le Moniteur, 27 december, p. 1).

61. In August 1877, it went before the Senate, where senator Denis, who had been on the bicameral committee that wrote the report with Paul, defended it, but the committee charged with studying it asked for more time (« Sénat. Séance du 27 août 1877 (Soir) », Le Moniteur, 22 novembre 1877, p. 1-3). On July 30, 1878, the committee – whose rapporteur was Thoby – produced an unfavorable report, which Thoby presented to the Senate two days later (« Sénat. Séance du 1er août 1878 ». Le Moniteur, 28 septembre 1878, p. 1-4). As the legislative session was ending in August, the Senate decided to postpone a vote on the bill, explicitly (in Thoby’s words) as a way of rejecting it (« Sénat. Séance du 20 Août 1878 » Le Moniteur, 17 octobre 1878, p 1-3). Some of the bill’s opponents, like Thoby and Hyppolite, publicly laid out their arguments; others gave procedural pretexts, and two did not show up when they knew it would be discussed, apparently in order to avoid having to discuss their position (Ibid.).

62. « Premiers status des patrons-fondateurs d’un lycée modèle », Le Moniteur, 5 avril 1877, p. 3.

63. There was some controversy over the legal compatibility of his various functions, but ultimately he was not barred from any of them. See « Sénat »,  Le Moniteur, 11 juillet 1878, p. 1; « Chambre des Représentants. Séance publique du 5 Juillet 1878 », Le Moniteur, 27 juillet 1878, p. 2-4 ; « Chambre des Représentants. Séance publique du 5 juillet 1878 (Suite) », Le Moniteur, 1 août 1878, p. 2-4. Note that Paul’s obituary in The New York Times says he was mayor of Port-au-Prince twice, but I have not been able to corroborate this. Supplice (Dictionnaire, 570, echoed by C3 Editions in the front matter of their 2023 edition of Paul, De l’impôt sur les cafés) states that Edmond Paul was named mayor of Port-au-Prince in June 1873, but I have not been able to confirm this. It should be noted that in September and December of 1873, at least, the mayor (magistrat communal) of Port-au-Prince was L. Chevalier (see « Avis No. 14 », Le Moniteur, 13 septembre 1873, p. 3; « Arrêté No. 16 », Le Moniteur, 13 décembre 1873, p. 1), and that Supplice does not mention Paul’s election as mayor in June of 1878.

64. See John Mercer Langston, “No. 252. Mr. Langston to Mr. Evarts,” Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, Transmitted to Congress, With the Annual Message of the President, December 1, 1879, U.S. State Department, Office of the Historian, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1879/d276; J.C. Dorsainvil, Manuel, 310.

65. See Langston, “No. 252”.

66. Langston, “No. 252”; Smith, “Exile”; Jean Price-Mars, Boyer Bazelais. The exact timing and itineraries of this exile are not entirely clear in the consulted sources, but Elie (« Magloire », 5) and Roche-Grellier (Haïti : son passé, son avenir, Arthur Rousseau, 1891, 94-95) mention some further details.

67. Roche-Grellier (Haïti, 94).

68. Ambassade d’Haïti en France, « Chefs d’Etat haïtiens : Théomas Boisrond-Canal (1876-1879) », 12 juin 2021, https://ambassadehaiti-france.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/12.-The%CC%81omas-Boisrond-Canal-1876-1879.pdf

69. J.C. Dorsainvil, Manuel, 315-316.

70. See H. Trouillot, « La pensée », 9 mars 1967, 3.

71. See Bellegarde, La nation, 159 [the page number is for the pdf version edited by Rency Inson Michel].

72. He was elected as a senator for Jacmel in May 1890, and he was sworn in on 24 June of the same year (see « Chambre des Députés. Séance de 5 mai 1890 », Le Moniteur, 14 juin 1890, p 1-3 ; « Sénat. Séance du mercredi 24 juin 1890 », Le Moniteur, 5 juillet 1890, p 1). According to Supplice (Dictionnaire, 570, echoed by C3 Editions in the front matter of their 2023 edition of Paul, De l’impôt sur les cafés), he was subsequently elected for Port-au-Prince on 18 May 1892, during the same 19th legislature for which he had been elected in 1890. He had also been a candidate for Léogâne in 1890 (see « Suite de la liste des candidats au Sénat », Le Moniteur, 8 mars 1890, p. 1 ; « Liste des Candidats au Sénat élus par les Collèges Electoraux dans les Arrondissements ci-après », Le Moniteur, 23 avril 1890, p 1).

73. See « Sénat », Le Moniteur, 30 juillet 1890, p. 1; « Sénat », Le Moniteur, 15 octobre 1892, p. 2.

74. See Marcelin, Choses, 15.

75. Smith (“Exile”, 5) refers to this third period in Jamaica as “exile,” without further explanation. This interpretation might be worth revisiting, given that Paul received a state funeral and was eulogized by government officials and the official newspaper, as well as the New York Times, as an acting senator at the time of his death (see « Nécrologie », Le Moniteur, 1 juillet 1893, p. 4 ; « Discours prononcé sur la tombe du sénateur Edmond Paul par le Président du comité permanent du Sénat », Le Moniteur, 15 juillet 1893, p. 4 ; The New York Times, “Death”). Indeed, at the time of his death, his mandate was in the process of being renewed (see « Chambre des Représentants. Séance du mercredi 2 août 1893 », Le Moniteur, 19 août 1893, p. 2). Whatever the reason for choosing Kingston, where he had previously lived for over a decade, Paul reportedly knew that he was dying, and bid his friends farewell before going (see Marcelin, Choses, 15).

76. New York Times, “Death”.

77. Two contemporary sources, Le Moniteur (12 juillet 1893: 2) and the New York Times (“Death”), indicate this date of death. Apparently, Nicholls (Dessalines to Duvalier, 102) is mistaken when he writes that Paul died on June 17.

78. New York Times (“Death”). According to Supplice (Dictionnaire, 570), his remains arrived in Haiti on July 9, the day before the funeral.

79. Le Moniteur, 12 July 1893, p. 2. Several speeches were made at the funeral (Ibid.), two of which were published in the following edition of Le Moniteur (“Discours prononcé sur la tombe” ; “Discours prononcé par le Sénateur Cadestin Bobert”, Le Moniteur, 15 juillet 1893, p. 4).

80. There are at least two posthumous publications : Edmond Paul, Étude politique : Haïti et l’intérêt français (Réponse à Monsieur de Molinari) Aperçu d’un plan de gouvernement, révision du code rural, projets de lois diverses. (E. Bernard & cie., 1895), and Edmond Paul, Œuvres posthumes, in 1896. I have not yet had access to the 1895 publication, but judging from its title (which overlaps with the contents of Œuvres posthumes), it may be a different edition of the same book as Œuvres posthumes. It should be noted, though, that the 1895 version is slightly longer (390 pages), according to its listing at the Bibliothèque haïtienne des Frères de l’Instruction Chrétienne ; it is available on microfilm at the University of Utah’s Marriott Library. Interested researchers should also note that in 1894, the Haitian government approved a budget to publish Paul’s posthumous works (see « Chambre des Représentants. Séance du 30 août 1894 », Le Moniteur, 13 janvier 1897: 6 [30] ; « Chambre des Représentants. Séance du lundi 13 août 1894 », Le Moniteur, 16 mars 1895: 3). Meanwhile, it is reported (in a reference I have lost) that Paul’s descendants did the same ; this may explain the separate editions. Also, note that Œuvres posthumes is named « volume 1 », but I have not found references to any further volumes. As for Paul’s personal library, apparently it was inherited by his good friend Camille Bruno. See Hannibal Price, Cours de droit administratif (Imprimerie Amblard, 1906), v ; Alcibiade Pommayrac, « À Edmond Paul. Hommage de la ville de Jacmel », dans Œuvres posthumes de Edmond Paul, tome 1 (Vve. Ch. Dunod et P. Vicq, 1896), 8.

81. See Bissainthe, Dictionnaire, 44n506. The cost of the bronze sculpture was covered by contributions from all over the country. See « Chambre des Représentants, Séance du 4 juin 1897 », Le Moniteur, 7 août 1897: 6 [492].

82. Image courtesy of the Bibliothèque Haïtienne des Frères de l’Instruction Chrétienne.

83. See, for example, Edmond Paul, L’éducation industrielle du peuple, ou la protection due aux industries naissantes. Deuxième lettre à M. Monfleury (P.-A. Bourdier, 1862), 155-157.

84. The Other Canon refers to a tradition of economic thought that predates Adam Smith and the physiocrats by centuries, and which has consistently generated wealth across the world by focusing on qualitative differences in productive activities, which are studied in their historical context. See Reinert (Rich Countries ; Other Canon).

85. See Edmond Paul, « Formation de la richesse nationale », Le Moniteur, 12 octobre 1861, p. 2-4 ; Edmond Paul, Questions politico-économiques II (P.-A. Bourdier, 1863); Paul, De l’Industrie, 8-10, 20-21, 23, Paul, L’éducation industrielle, 7, 11, 16-17, 27-30, 48, 51-56, 80, 82-83, 193-196.

86. Paul, « Formation de la richesse » (also in Paul, Questions politico-économiques II). See also Reinert, Rich Countries.

87. Paul, L’éducation industrielle, 64-65.

88. Paul, « Rapport sur la pétition des ouvriers de la capitale », dans Œuvres posthumes, 306.

89. Paul, L’éducation industrielle, 44-45.

90. Edmond Paul, De l’impôt sur les cafés et des lois du commerce intérieur (M. DeCordova & co., 1876).

91. Paul, De l’Industrie, 20-21. See also Joachim, Les racines, 169.

92. See Edmond Paul, « Aperçu d’un plan de gouvernement », dans Œuvres posthumes, 15-38 ; Edmond Paul, « Administration rurale », dans Œuvres posthumes, 215-282. See also Paul, « Rapport sur la pétition », 299-300.

93. Bellegarde, Histoire, 292.

94. See Paul, De l’Industrie, 3; Paul, L’éducation industrielle, 21-22, 57, 67-68, 71, 85, 88, 214.

95. See Chéry, « Introduction »; the final chapter of Paul, De l’impôt sur les cafés; Edmond Paul, « Projet de loi qui supprime les entraves jusqu’ici apportées dans le commerce intérieur », dans Œuvres posthumes, 239-240; and « Chambre des Représentants. Séance publique du 23 mai 1877 », Le Moniteur, 14 juin 1877: 3.

96. Paul, L’éducation industrielle, 33-34.

97. Paul, L’éducation industrielle, 34-35.

98. Paul makes it clear that protections should have an expiry date as well as conditionalities to ensure competition, consumer protection, efficiency, and fiscal revenue, and that domestic competition should be allowed as a safeguard against the disadvantages of monopolies. See Paul, « Formation de la richesse » ; Paul, De l’Industrie, 12 ; Paul, L’éducation industrielle, 184.

99. See, for example, Paul, L’éducation industrielle, 200-201. He is somewhat ambivalent about direct subsidies, but in the end, his principle is that the means can vary, as long as they achieve the end of industrialization (Paul, Questions politico-économiques II, 56).

100. See Edmond Paul, Questions politico-économiques I (C. Meyruis, 1861) ; Edmond Paul, « Projet de loi portant crédit au département de l’Instruction publique pour l’envoi à l’Etranger de jeunes gens dont les études doivent être dirigées vers les sciences qui ont une application immédiatement pratique et utile », dans Œuvres posthumes, 287-290 ; « Chambre des Représentants. Séance publique du 23 mai 1877 », Le Moniteur, 14 juin 1877: 3.

101. See Paul, L’éducation industrielle, 198-200.

102. See, for example, Edmond Paul, « Notes pour une loi sur les écoles rurales », in Œuvres posthumes, 267-269 ; Edmond Paul, « Projet de loi pour le recrutement du personnel de l’administration et des écoles a la campagne », in Œuvres posthumes, 270-275; and Edmond Paul, « Loi (Projet) », in Œuvres posthumes, 276-281.

103. Paul, Questions politico-économiques I, 30-31 ; Edmond Paul, “À Monsieur Montfleury [sic]”, dans Œuvres posthumes, 323-340. His critique of the curriculum that had been imported from France did not by any means imply a preference for Anglo-Saxon culture, as Louis Auguste Joint (Système éducatif et inégalités sociales en Haïti, L’Harmattan, 2006, 79) mistakenly claims; instead, it was explicitly grounded in a preference for addressing the particular needs of the Haitian context at the time, relying in part on French expertise.

104. Paul, « Aperçu », 28-29 ; Paul, L’éducation industrielle, 65, 70-71 ; Paul, « Rapport sur la pétition », 303-304.

105. Paul, De l’impôt sur les cafés ; Paul, « Étude politique », 146 ; see also Chéry (« Introduction »). C. Cadet (« La pensée », 65) claims that Paul was naïve about the vested interests of state actors, but I take Paul’s arguments as signs that he was not; rather, he was simply unsuccessful in his attempts to convince and pressure them to act in the interest of the long-term common good.

106. See Nicholls (Dessalines to Duvalier, 105-107). Note though that Nicholls’ claim that “Paul defended a system of enlightened despotism” can be countered with a great deal of evidence showing that Paul defended constitutional rule. Paul explicitly argues against any form of despotism and in favor of the rule of law in « Le despotisme eclairé », Le Civilisateur, 19 octobre 1871, p. 1-3. (Nicholls cites this article in an earlier paragraph, but seems to have misunderstood its thrust.) See also, for example, Paul’s intervention in the National Assembly on 17 July 1876, where he says, “Nous ne voulons plus d’un Chef qui nous commande, nous demandons le règne de la loi.” (“Assamblée nationale”, Le Moniteur, 22 juillet 1876: 2).

107. Because Paul insists that trade is indeed desirable, and because he is open to foreign investments and immigration, Nicholls’ (Dessalines to Duvalier, 103-108) characterization of Paul’s position in terms of “autarky,” which is echoed by Malcolm Cross (Urbanization and Urban Growth in the Caribbean, Cambridge UP, 1979, 24) and Jared Holley (“Racial Equality and Anticolonial Solidarity”, American Political Science Review 118, no. 1, 2024: 310), is unwarranted. Caprio (« Introduction », 156) has already made this point.

108. In his own words, “Je suis protectioniste pour aller à la liberté ou libre-échangiste en passant par la protection.” Paul, De l’Industrie, 3, emphasis in original.

109. Paul’s ideas were seen as common sense by many economists at the time (as he himself shows with a large number of quotations that supplement his arguments). See also Charlier (« Haití », 231); Reinert (Rich Countries ; Other Canon).

110. See, for example, Michel-Rolph Trouillot’s mention, in a 1990 conference, of Edmond Paul’s “economic liberalism” (M.R. Trouillot, “The Odd and the Ordinary”, Vibrant 17, 2020 [1990]); while he does not cite any reference there, in another publication from the same year as the conference (M.R. Trouillot, State Against Nation, Monthly Review Press, 1990), the only work he cites by Paul is De l’impôt sur les cafés. See also, for example, John Connor (“Children of Guinea”, The Anarchist Library, 2003), who writes of Paul’s “commitment to foreign trade liberalisation.”

111. For more on the Liberal party in historical context, see Chelsea Stieber, Haiti’s Paper War (New York UP, 2020), 201-226.

112. Paul, L’éducation industrielle, 12-15. See also Ibid.: 106-111, 117-118, 138, 159-161.

113. Paul, Questions politico-économiques II, 48-56, 118; Paul, « Rapport sur la pétition », 305.

114. Questions politico-économiques II, 118-119.

115. Edmond Paul, « Projet de loi qui abolit le principe de l’impôt sur les denrées exportées et affecte durant quatre ans une portion du produit de cet impôt à la formation du capital d’une banque d’escompte », dans Œuvres Posthumes, 290-292.

116. Paul, « Aperçu », 25-26. C. Cadet (« La pensée »,  65) seems to miss the points explained here when he claims that Paul did not name the sources of capital for his industrialization plans, and that it would mostly exclude foreigners.

117. Paul, Questions politico-économiques II, 58-97. Paul argues that racist foreigners would not want to pay taxes to support education for Haitians, which would raise Black people to the same cultural and economic standing as theirs; instead, they would leverage their power to limit Haitians to producing only basic commodities. This might produce wealth, but the foreigners would extract it in the form of rents, and Haitians would not benefit.

118. In Edmond Paul, Questions politico-économiques III (P.-A. Bourdier, 1863), 123.

119. Paul, Haïti au soleil de 1880, 1880.

120. See Joachim (Les racines, 183); Pierre-Charles (L’économie, 82).

121. Nicholls (Dessalines to Duvalier, 102-104). See also Laurent Dubois, Haiti: The Aftershocks of History (Metropolitan Books, 2012).

122. See Bulmer-Thomas, Economic History, 179.

123. See Paul, « Étude politique », 147-148. (Note though that Paul’s specific arguments in this case are from after 1883, when Salomon had reintroduced paper money. For a nuanced reading of Paul’s position on monetary policy, see H. Trouillot, « La pensée », 9 mars 1967, p. 1.)

124. See Edmond Paul, Rapport au corps législatif sur les opérations du retrait du papier-monnaie par la Commission exécutive instituée par la loi du 24 aôut 1872 (s.n., 1891 [1874]).

125. See Paul, Questions politico-économiques III. Note that the U.S. only abandoned the principle of precious metal as a guarantee for its currency in 1971. Meanwhile, during the U.S. Occupation of Haiti, in 1919, Haiti’s gourde was pegged to the U.S. dollar at a fixed rate (Guy Pierre, « La Politica Monetaria en Haití de 1919/22 a 1955/56 », Asociación Argentina de Historia Económica, 2008: 3). This lasted until 1990, when today’s floating exchange rate system was adopted (Kathleen Dorsainvil, “Collapsing Exchange Rate Regimes in the Presence of a Parallel Market,” Applied Economics 32, n. 6, 2000: 672).

126. See, for example, his intervention in « Sénat. Séance du samedi 31 novembre 1891 », dans Sénat. Rapport de sa commission sur la question monetaire (Imprimerie nationale, 1892), 10-17.

127. Pierre-Charles (L’économie, 339) has also emphasized this point.

128. Chéry, « Introduction ».

129. Paul, « Patriotisme et conscience », s.n., 1877: 14. Ipse means “he himself” in Latin. Note that the reference to himself as a “Revolutionary of March 7” in this document, which was probably published in 1877, may be related to the question raised by Price-Mars (Boyer Bazelais, 37n1) regarding the much later choice of Paul and others to use that date, and not March 27 (which was the actual date of the Miragoane invasion), in their revolutionary document from 1883.

130. Paul, « Étude politique ». Note that Paul quotes Molinari as early as 1862, in the opening epigraph to Paul, De l’Industrie.

131. To be sure, Paul occasionally makes remarks that suggest a cultural Eurocentrism, such as when he describes progress in terms of violins replacing drums (Paul, Questions politico-économiques II, 14), but throughout his work he is emphatic in distinguishing this sort of view from biological racism,  and in showing that “the African race” is capable of the same level of “civilization” as Europeans, even when civilization is understood on European terms.

132. See, for example, Marlene Daut, Tropics of Haiti (Liverpool UP, 2015); Marlene Daut, Baron de Vastey and the Origins of Black Atlantic Humanism (Palgrave Macmillan, 2017); Marlene Daut, Awakening the Ashes (U. of North Carolina P., 2023); Chelsea Stieber, “Beyond Mentions,” Early American Literature 53, n. 3 (2018): 961–975; Stieber, Haiti’s Paper War; Holley, “Racial Equality”.

133. New York Times, “Death”.

134. Pierre-Charles (L’économie, 17).

135. Caprio (« Introduction », 156) has noted that Edmond Paul’s work prefigures the economic ideas that became popular a century later in the Third World. To my knowledge, the question of whether and to what extent there are any links to Paul in the respective genealogies of these theories – such as Latin American structuralism and dependency theory, and Caribbean plantation economy theory – and related policies, beyond their common Other Canon heritage, remains open.

136. Paul’s newspaper, Le Civilisateur, would be a relevant resource for this research, since it published international news.

137. See Price-Mars (Boyer Bazelais, 124-129); Smith (“Exile”).

138. Thanks to Dexnell Peters for pointing this out. Regarding Firmin’s endorsement of Paul’s ideas, see Charlier, « Haití », 235.

139. See Matthew J. Smith, Liberty, Fraternity, Exile: Haiti and Jamaica After Emancipation (U. of North Carolina P., 2014).

140. Jean Casimir, La cultura oprimida (Nueva Imagen: 1981); Jean Casimir, The Haitians, trans. Laurent Dubois (U. of North Carolina P., 2020); Laurent Dubois, “Thinking Haiti’s Nineteenth Century.” Small Axe no. 44 (2014): 72; Johnhenry Gonzalez, Maroon Nation (Yale UP, 2019).

141. See L. Dubois, “Thinking”, 72-73 ; Paul, « Administration rurale ». Perhaps one could interpret Louis Joseph Janvier’s critique of liberals in this light (see Stieber, Haiti’s Paper War, 215-216).

142. Especially in Paul, De l’impôt sur les cafés.

143. See Chéry, « Introduction », 23.

144. See L. Dubois, Aftershocks.

145. Chéry, « Introduction », 23.

146. Nearly every country that has attained enduring economic wealth since the European Rennaissance has done it through a similar set of policies. See Reinert, Rich Countries.

147. Throughout the process, many allusions were made to the competing “economic doctrines” of protectionism and free trade (see especially « Sénat. Séance du 1er août 1878 ». Le Moniteur, 28 septembre 1878, p. 1-4), but there were clearly other issues at play as well. For example, Paul noted that one of his député colleagues who questioned the idea of manufacturing shirts in Haiti had a business where he sold imported shirts (« Chambre des Représentants. Séance publique du 27 Août 1877 », Le Moniteur, 27 décembre 1877, p. 1). For further research on this, important references for tracing the legislative process include: « Chambre des Représentants. Séance publique du 23 mai 1877 », Le Moniteur, 14 juin 1877, p. 3-4 ; « Chambre des Représentants. Séance publique du 27 août 1877 », Le Moniteur, 27 december, p. 1 ; « Chambre des Représentants. Séance publique du 27 août 1877 »,; « Sénat. Séance du 27 août 1877 (Soir) », Le Moniteur, 22 novembre 1877, p. 1-3 ; « Sénat. Séance du 24 mai 1878 », Le Moniteur, 6 juin 1878, p. 1 ; « Sénat. Séance du 1er août 1878 » ; and « Sénat. Séance du 20 Août 1878 » Le Moniteur, 17 octobre 1878, p 1-3.

148. See, for example, Paul’s argument that prosperity comes from higher real wages for workers, rather than lower prices for the same people as consumers (Paul, « Rapport sur la pétition »,  306-308 ). This resonates strongly in light of the 1980s and 1990s, when (temporarily) lower food prices were used to justify neoliberal policies that ultimately destroyed Haitian productivity and jobs. See, for example, Michael Hooper, Duvalierism Since Duvalier (National Coalition for Haitian Refugees, 1986), 12; Jean-Germain Gros, “Indigestible Recipe: Rice, Chicken Wings, and International Financial Institutions”, Journal of Black Studies 40, n. 5 (2010): 982-983; Claire McGuigan, “Agricultural liberalisation in Haiti” (Christian Aid, 2006), 22-24; Council on Hemispheric Affairs, “Bill Clinton’s Heavy Hand on Haiti’s Vulnerable Agricultural Economy,” 13 April 2010, https://coha.org/haiti-research-fileneoliberalism%E2%80%99s-heavy-hand-on-haiti%E2%80%99s-vulnerable-agriculturaleconomy-the-american-rice-scandal/.

149. While Paul explicitly defended the need to adapt European economic models to the Haitian context (see, for example, Paul, L’éducation industrielle, 155-157), he did not necessarily apply the same logic to government institutions (see Price-Mars 1949: 19-20; see also Casimir 2020). Today, a fundamentalist emphasis on institutions is among the “red herrings” that impede the structural transformation of many countries’ productive sectors (Reinert, Rich Countries, chapter 6 ; see also Reinert, Other Canon, 547-566 [of which Erik Reinert, “Institutionalism Ancient, Old and New”, UNU World Institute for Development Economics Research, 2006, is an earlier version that is freely available online]).

150. Le Moniteur and Le Civilisateur are important sources of information about Edmond Paul’s personal connections. See, for example, F.E. Dubois, “Vente d’immeuble par autorité de justice”, Le Moniteur, 3 mai 1873, p. 4, where we learn that his father’s property is being auctioned off and that his brother is deceased, along with the names of his lawyer, his brother’s children, their guardians, and his brother-in-law. On the other hand, the consulted sources do not say much about Edmond Paul’s spousal relations or possible progeny. Chéry (« Introduction », 13) says he was married once, while Supplice (Dictionnaire, 570) names two spouses, Euphrasia Lara and Roselyne Cardozzo; neither author gives further details. In 1908, in Le Nouvelliste (« Funérailles », December 29, 1908, p. 3), an adult named Edmond Paul announced the Port-au-Prince funeral of a child named Jacques Edmond Paul; perhaps this announcement, which could refer to two generations of Edmond Paul’s descendants and includes other names and an address, can serve as a clue for interested researchers. Likewise, in 1930, an Aug. Edmond Paul was part of the municipal government of Port-au-Prince (see « Arreté. La Commission communale », Le Moniteur, 8 septembre 1930, p. 2 [p. 306]) ; he or someone with the same name, who died in 1977, also had a brother named Jean Edmond Paul (see « Décès de M. Auguste Edmond Paul », Le Nouvelliste, 13 décembre 1977, p 8).

151. See Rulx Léon’s book on Jean Paul, which reproduces his epistolary correspondence with other elites throughout his career as a statesman, and also describes the local connections and career of Edmond Paul’s paternal grandfather, Paul François, who eventually became a justice of the peace (juge de paix) in Léogâne (Léon, Propos, 20).

152. See Vertus Saint-Louis, « Relations internationales et classe politique en Haïti (1784-1814) », Outre-mers 90, no. 340-341 (2003): 155-175; Alex Dupuy, “Class formation and underdevelopment in nineteenth-century Haiti”, Race & Class 24, n. 1 (1982): 17–31; Michel Soukar Radiographie de la « bourgeoisie haïtienne » (C3 Éditions, 2014); Brenda Gayle Plummer, “The Metropolitan Connection: Foreign and Semi-Foreign Elites in Haiti, 1900-1915,” Latin American Research Review 19 (1984): 119-142; Omar Ribeiro Thomaz, “Haitian elites and their perceptions of poverty and of Inequality,” in Elite perceptions of poverty and inequality, ed. Elisa Reis and Mick Moore, pp. 127-155 (Zed, 2005).